Fossil Records and Evolutionary Theory

           When using fossil records to describe evolution, there are conflicting opinions that serve in the favor of evolution, and some that go against evolution. Many scientists and scholars believe that because there has always been a gap in the fossil record, evolution could not describe the different species we have in the world today and that there is no way to link the genetic makeup of species in the past with those today. The theory of creationism aims to debunk the evolutionary theory by suggesting that the gap in the fossil records is enough to falsify the theory of evolution. What is known as transitional fossils, trace common traits among ancestor species and link those traits with species that exist today. Transitional fossils give us a glimpse of common descent and how it may have occurred.

These ideas of transitional fossils are known as the missing links. This means that these fossils are ultimately what show the evolution transition. Many have tried to say that fossils do not show evolution due to the gaps, but many argue that the examples of early humans prove others wrong. There have been many fossils starting with primates that show the changes through time to the rise of early humans. From these fossils we have evidence that evolution is taking place and with out fossils we would not be able to trace back to out human ancestors. 

Creationists try to refute evidence for evolution by stating that evolution is only a theory. However, Evolutionists have a lot of evidence to support their claims. Physical evidence such as fossils have been found all around the world supporting evolution. There is no scientific evidence that support creationism, and this is why many people are against having it taught in schools. Creationists claim faith and scriptures as evidence. However, many of their claims cannot physically be proven and humans wrote the scriptures, which isn’t accepted in the scientific world as direct evidence of the supernatural theory.

What is often overlooked when objecting to the theory of evolution is that despite a few gaps in the fossil record, there is still plenty of fossil information that is available. The overall picture that it presents is a progression of smaller and fewer species that evolved into all others. From simple to complex, each species has characteristics that appear to be a modified adaptation of a former species, dating all the way to the first forms of life. The evidence that is missing is not enough to reject evolution. It is still possible to infer the validity of the theory. It is a perfect example of an inference to the best explanation, which basically means that although there is some missing proof, there is reasonable justification to consider it true. More importantly, it means there is not a stronger alternative, such as Creationism, which better explains the evidence. 
 

http://atheism.about.com/od/evolutionexplained/a/FossilRecordEvolution.html

http://www.sullivan-county.com/nf0/fundienazis/25_answers.htm

http://www.scientificamerican.com/article.cfm?id=15-answers-to-creationist

http://books.google.com/books?id=FSYJxLz6zmcC&printsec=frontcover&dq=breaking+the+spell&hl=en&src=bmrr&ei=BQz4TI-oJIK8lQfHyqGPAg&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=book-thumbnail&resnum=1&ved=0CCkQ6wEwAA#v=onepage&q&f=false

http://atheism.about.com/od/evolutionexplained/a/FossilRecordEvolution.htm

 

Why Does Religion Exist?

The definition of religion is one that is very difficult to define. There has been much debate on what the correct meaning of religion is. Our group has come up with our own definition by reading different ideas. Religion is a set of beliefs relating to nature, the purpose of life, as well as the universe, the creation of all of this and the supernatural. The word religion can also be used in the context of faith, or belief. This allows individuals to come together as a community when they have a same belief system. There are many religions in the world and this is shown through the difference of their organization. They believe in different gods, rituals, prayers because of their different traditions and histories that explain the meaning of life. Religion has been broken down into three categories, which are World Religions, Indigenous Religions, and New Religious Movements. The most important aspect of religion is the meaning behind it. Religion has a huge role in the significance on what the human existence is.
The divergence of religion across continents is in a large part due to the travel and eventual settling of humans in different parts of the world. As the earliest humans carried their religious practices to new territory, their beliefs developed into the diverse religions that we know of today. Take Central and South America for example. Some 40,000 years ago, humans began migrating from Asia into North America, through Central America and eventually reaching South America. Along the way, religious practices, though maintaining much of the same basic beliefs, evolved along with the civilization. For instance, despite the belief of polytheism in both Mayan and Incan cultures, the Mayans saw the afterlife as a journey through the evil underworld for most, and only those who were sacrificed could go to heaven. On the other hand the Incas developed a belief in reincarnation, where after death a spirit was given a new form to inhabit. The Incas also came up with a philosophy of equality among men and women, due to their particular gods and goddesses. Farther north, the Mayan people saw blood as nourishment for their gods, which caused them to perform various acts of self-torture and sacrifice. Alternatively, these two civilizations practice religions that are entirely different from those of the Native Americans of North America. There are plenty of other differences between religions of these territories, but the point is that cultures that come from the same initial population can develop such diverse religious practices and rituals as they evolve and spread out across continents. The reasons for all of these differences could be attributed to geographic differences, survival methods (such as how they obtain food), or possibly just the evolution of values within a culture. Whatever the reason, it is clear that as human beings began to diversify and evolve into the different peoples and societies we know today, so too did their religious customs and beliefs. 

            One of the reasons religion has existed throughout history is because of the experiences people have encountered with it. Many people claim these testimonies and experiences as evidence of religion. For example, people attribute healings, good fortune, or anything good in their lives to rituals, prayers, or even sacrifices performed for a higher entity. People also use religion to explain incomprehensible events, such as death and natural disasters. By contributing causation to a higher entity people are also able to have closure and gain some sort of peace within about the situation. Although religion does not necessarily have scientific evidence many people still and will always believe in it. People will continue to share testimonies and traditions with others and religion will continue to spread and exist. Religion plays a huge role in our everyday societies here in the United States, and in other countries across the globe. People look to religions to seek the things they wish to achieve or attain in life.
 

http://anthro.palomar.edu/religion/rel_1.htm

http://machineslikeus.com/news/religion-and-evidence-1-why-people-believe

 http://www.religionfacts.com/mayan_religion/index.htm

http://philtar.ucsm.ac.uk/encyclopedia/latam/geness.html

http://history-world.org/inca.htm

 

The Early Formation of Religions Across the World

Today, we as humans practice a certain religion and are generally aware of the religions that exist around the world. Modern religion differs greatly from those that were practiced in ancient civilizations across the globe.  Many have been modified from their original practices and many are rarely ever practiced anymore. On different continents and the countries that make up its geography have practiced religion since its very beginnings and have in fact changed throughout time.

When one thinks of evolution they envision the change of species through time. They think of the idea of species changing in order to survive. The same idea can be envisioned when thinking of the evolution of religion. In Yoruba, Africa, the religion of Santeria is a great example of evolution in terms of religion. In the colonial period Europeans enslaved Africans. Not only did they make them work for them, but also criminalized their religion. Inevitably the enslaved were forced to practice European religion, which is Roman Catholicism. They were forced to worship a different god that they knew nothing about and were forced to be baptized. Through the hardship of slavery they used Santeria as a means to keep their faith and spirituality alive. Santeria is a mixture of Indigenous traditions with Roman Catholic religion. Some of these traditions are the ability to communicate with ancestors, the sacrificing of animals, and sacred drumming. The idea behind this religion is that they would still practice their own rituals and sacrifices but their gods would generally take up different forms or forms that allowed the Europeans to believe that the enslaved were conforming to their religion. This evolved into a new form of their religion that is seen today. Once slavery was abolished people continued with the religion of Santeria. It is prominent in Latino and African cultures partly because many of the enslaved were taken over seas to work on sugar plantations. It is practiced around the world. It is prevalent in many movies and t.v shows. As a result of the religion practiced in Europe, slaves developed their own beliefs and religion that is widely known as Santaria instead of reverting to Roman Catholicism. Roman Catholicism in Europe is a modern religion that is practiced throughout the continent and other places. Ancient European religions shaped what Roman Catholicism is today.

Ancient European religions were generally pagan and polytheistic.  In fact each country had its own indigenous religion. Ancient Greek religion includes both ritual and cult practices.  The Greek religion was originally based off polytheism. They had a set hierarchy of gods and goddesses whom they worshipped. The ancient Greeks also believed in an afterlife in which the spirits of the dead went to an underworld after their death. They also held many festivals throughout each year celebrating certain deities.  Some of the rituals the ancient Greeks took part in included the sacrifice of animals usually as part of a ceremony at altars or temples. In ancient Rome religion also played a large role in people’s daily lives. Ancient Roman religions also had polythestic beliefs. The Emperor of Rome was often considered to be god and worshipped on certain occasions. They also practiced rituals and sacrafices. The Roman people kept few altars and shrines for their “lares” which were the head of the household family. In western Europe the Celts worshipped forces of nature unlike the ancient Greeks, and did not attribute human characteristics to gods. Germanic paganism included polytheism as well and  both human and animal sacrafices. Many of these ancient religions fell victim to influence and manipulation from Christianity and the Mediterranean culture. Then throughout the beginning of the early middle ages most of Europe underwent Christinization. Today paganism and polytheism are rarely practiced in Europe.

The divergence of religion across continents is in a large part due to the travel and eventual settling of humans in different parts of the world. As the earliest humans carried their religious practices to new territory, their beliefs developed into the diverse religions that we know of today. Take Central and South America for example. Some 40,000 years ago, humans began migrating from Asia into North America, through Central America and eventually reaching South America. Along the way, religious practices, though maintaining much of the same basic beliefs, evolved along with the civilization. For instance, despite the belief of polytheism in both Mayan and Incan cultures, the Mayans saw the afterlife as a journey through the evil underworld for most, and only those who were sacrificed could go to heaven. On the other hand the Incas developed a belief in reincarnation, where after death a spirit was given a new form to inhabit. The Incas also came up with a philosophy of equality among men and women, due to their particular gods and goddesses. Farther north, the Mayan people saw blood as nourishment for their gods, which caused them to perform various acts of self-torture and sacrifice. Alternatively, these two civilizations practice religions that are entirely different from those of the Native Americans of North America. There are plenty of other differences between religions of these territories, but the point is that cultures that come from the same initial population can develop such diverse religious practices and rituals as they evolve and spread out across continents. The reasons for all of these differences could be attributed to geographic differences, survival methods (such as how they obtain food), or possibly just the evolution of values within a culture. Whatever the reason, it is clear that as human beings began to diversify and evolve into the different peoples and societies we know today, so too did their religious customs and beliefs.

http://www.religionfacts.com/mayan_religion/index.htm

http://philtar.ucsm.ac.uk/encyclopedia/latam/geness.html

http://history-world.org/inca.htm
http://www.historylearningsite.co.uk/ancient_rome_and_religion.htm
http://chalk.richmond.edu/education/projects/webunits/greecerome/Greecerelig1.html

http://philtar.ucsm.ac.uk/encyclopedia/europe/geness.html

The Origin of Religion

Sasha Pena

Edson Ramirez

John McGinness

Christian Mora

Origin of religion

The origin of religion has been an ongoing debate among scholars throughout history. Were humans the first to use religion or was it the Neanderthals? One of the arguments used in the justification of Neanderthal’s having a religion is the burial of their dead. Often times they would bury their dead in a certain position, or with different items. Some argue that the burial of the dead was used to hide smells or keep away from predators. However, many scholars disagree and state burials were done purposely because the Neanderthal’s had a belief in the afterlife, ritual, and practiced some sort of religion.

The specific burial position of some Neanderthal corpses is further evidence suggesting some sort of belief of an afterlife. Numerous excavations have revealed Neanderthal bodies buried intentionally in the fetal position, occasionally lacking a skull. This body placement indicates some type of burial ritual in which the body is returned to the same position as it was at birth. Perhaps the Neanderthals believed in a continuous life cycle in which the deceased would be reborn after death. As for the missing skull in some of the graves, it is possible that the head was a very significant part of the body to the Neanderthals, and was therefore given a separate burial or used for an additional ritual. Skeptics argue that the position of the bodies was simply to save space in the grave, and that the removal of the skull does not necessarily indicate a religious motive. However, those objections do not explain the traces of perfumed oil found on some Neanderthal bodies. This technique of covering the corpse with oils is very similar to embalming procedures of modern day society. With all of these similarities it is difficult to rule out the idea that Neanderthals in fact maintained some type of spiritually, or at least had some awareness regarding the implications of death and life beyond it.

Many believe that Neanderthals had a purpose for burying one another. Through excavation many Neanderthals have been discovered with items. Through research it has been found that many Neanderthals practiced similar burial techniques as individuals today do. This idea is important because it gives us a chance to make inferences through artifacts. Many Neanderthals have been found to have pollen surrounding their bones. This brings up the idea they were purposefully put there.  Many try to debate that burrowing rodents could have put pollen there. If that indeed was true then what explains the medical herbs found buried with the bodies. The evidence of medical herbs shows that there was probably some type of medicine man among them. Some were even found surrounded by pine branches and as many as eight different types of flowers. There has also been evidence of tools such as axes and stones that have been buried with the dead. If indeed there was not a belief in an after life why would they burry tools that they can use in their lives for survival? It is hard to believe that this was not intentional because of the variety of different ways each body was found. There had to be some belief of after life because of the procedures that were taken for burials. They had to have some sort of concept in respecting the dead. They not only buried them, but also buried them in a specific way that is seen through out all the bodies that have been excavated. The ways that they were buried are very similar to the ways we burry one another today. Perhaps, these forms of burial may suggest some sort of religiosity or worship of a higher being or supernatural entity. We may not have sufficient evidence that strongly suggests that Neanderthals believed in these things. Burying the corpses with tools seems to be a logical reason as to why Neanderthals believed in an afterlife, but we are not sure.

 http://www.garvandwane.com/religion/early_religion.html

http://www.britarch.ac.uk/ba/ba66/feat1.shtml

http://www.scilogs.eu/en/blog/biology-of-religion/2009-10-17/the-burials-of-neanderthals-religion-evolved-at-least-two-times

Evolution Of Religion

There are hundreds of religious groups in the world today. With so much variation in beliefs and customs, some common questions are: Where and when did religion originate? Why did it come about? And how did it evolve into what it is today? Just as all humans share a common ancestor in Africa, all religions can likely be traced back to some shared origin. It has its roots in Western Asia and the Mediterranean, and at its initial foundation is categorized into the following groups: polytheism, pantheism, and monotheism.

According to the Oxford English Dictionary, Polytheism is “the doctrine or belief that there is more than one god; worship of several gods. These gods consisted of both human and animal forms and feelings.  Polytheistic religions include: Hinduism, Mahayana Buddhism, Confucianism, Taoism, and Shintoism, which are practiced in the East. In Africa and the Americas, contemporary tribal religions fall into this category as well. These forms of worship were particularly true in both Greece and Rome. It was in Egypt where gods took on the shape of objects found in nature. The worship of multiple gods came about after the worship of a single spirit, demon, or animal. Animism, ancestor worship, and totemism (The system of tribal division according to totems) were the beliefs that followed. In Polytheism, these numerous gods are worshiped together as their belief system. In today’s modern world, polytheism represents a large body of our religious population. With the exception of Monotheistic religions (Christianity, Judaism, and Islam), religions across the world are primarily polytheistic. These sets of Polytheistic religions remain popular across the world and are continually practiced in their areas.

Another aspect of religion in ancient cultures is the idea of Pantheism. This is the belief that “all is God”. This means that “God is everything and everything is God”. The main focus is spirituality and ethics while placing strong emphasis on nature. This religion holds a high value in respecting and being in peace with nature. They understand and learn from the relationship that they have among one another as well as with their natural surroundings. The religion of Pantheism sees them selves to be equal to animals. In the belief of Pantheism there are three categories that are very important. The first one is Naturalistic Pantheism. This is the idea that there is a physical substance known as energy. If the word “God” was ever used it referred to nature and or the universe. The second category is from a Pantheism Idealist. They believe that there is only one substance and it has to do with mental and spiritual states. Their reality is in the single consciousness. The third category is Dualist Pantheism. They hold two types of substances that are physical and spiritual. This category is the most diverse due to the ideas of reincarnation, paranormal connections, and cosmic consciousness. Some of these ancient cultures include the beliefs of Buddhism, Confucianism, Taoism, and African and Indian cultures.

The third and final category of religion is the belief in one God, known as Monotheism. This view of religion is the base of many of the Abrahamic religions. Monotheism is the most common form of religion in the world today. Many historians believe this belief developed through Judaism as God began shows himself to the world through the nation of Israel and their scriptures. However, the origin of Monotheism is often broken up into three categories, Islam, Christianity, and Judaism, and each religion is separated by different interpretations of a holy text. Through these texts they are given a moral code in which to guide human behavior. The followers of Monotheism place their hope for liberation in the power God of the universe.  This religious belief has evolved throughout the years as followers have tried to understand God as well as interpret the holy texts.

            Over the course of history, religion has diversified nearly as much as the human population. It is one of the most ancient aspects of our culture. All of this variation can be attributed to the evolution of human beings over time, moving across continents and adapting to the conditions of their distinct environments, and attempting to explain the universe that they inhabit.

Polytheism-Multiplicity

http://www.allabouthistory.org/polytheism.htm

http://www.religioustolerance.org/rel_theory1.htm

http://www.allaboutreligion.org/origin-of-religion.htm